¶ 1. Introduction to Radar
TRACON stands for Terminal Radar Approach Control. Your job is to get departures from the terminal area to the en-route phase of flight and to bring arrivals from the en-route structure to the terminal environment.
¶ 2. Radar Identification
Radar identification methods play a crucial role in air traffic control. They help controllers determine the identity and location of aircraft, ensuring safe and efficient operations. In this page, we will explore the various radar identification methods used in air traffic control and how they are applied in real-world scenarios.
Reference: https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/atc_html/chap5_section_3.html
¶ Primary Radar vs. Secondary Radar
Before diving into the radar identification methods, it’s important to understand the difference between primary and secondary radar. Primary radar refers to the raw radar return that shows the position of the target but provides no additional information. On the other hand, secondary radar generates computer-generated information that appears alongside the primary radar return, including the aircraft’s callsign, squawk code, altitude, and ground speed.
| Primary | Secondary |
|---|---|
| Visual within 1 mile of runway | Squawk Code |
| Position Correlation | Ident |
| Identifying Turns | Squawk Standby |
¶ Identification status
You must inform an aircraft upon initial radar contact:
PHRASEOLOGY-
(ID), RADAR CONTACT (position if required *see below)
You must also inform them when you lose radar contact:
PHRASEOLOGY-
(ID), RADAR CONTACT LOST
Also inform aircraft when you are no longer providing radar services:
PHRASEOLOGY-
(ID), RADAR SERVICE TERMINATED
Reference: 7110.65 5-3-7
Reference: 7110.65 5-1-13
¶ Primary Radar Identification Methods
¶ 1. Visual within 1 mile of runway
One of the primary radar identification methods is observing a target within one mile of the departure end of the runway.
Example-
AAL123: “New York departure, American one twenty-three, climbing through one thousand six hundred. “You see a target off of the runway within 1 NM.
APP: “American one twenty-three, New York departure, radar contact.”
Reference: 7110.65 5-3-2a
¶ 2. Position Correlation
Position correlation involves the pilot reporting their position relative to a fix or visual reporting point, and the controller observing the target at that location. The reported position should align with the pilot’s intentions.
Example-
N123: “Socal approach, Cessna one two three, one zero miles northwest of the Julian VOR, niner thousand five hundred.”
APP: “Cessna one two three, Socal Approach, radar contact.”
Reference: 7110.65 5-3-2b
¶ 3. Identifying Turns
Identifying turns are defined as turns of 30 degrees or more. Controllers can issue identifying turns to aircraft for radar identification. However, they must exercise caution to avoid conflicts with other aircraft.
Example-
N123: “Socal approach, Cessna one two three, one zero miles northwest of the Julain VOR, niner thousand five hundred.”You look at your radar display and you see two targets about 10 miles northwest of JLI, but you are uncertain about which one gave the position report.
APP: “Cessna 123, Las Vegas approach, turn right 30 degrees for radar identification”
You observe one of them turning while the other remains on its course.
APP: “Cessna one two three, radar contact, eight miles morthwest of the Julian VOR”
Reference: 711.0.65 5-3-2c
¶ Secondary Radar Identification Methods
¶ 1. Ident
The first method for secondary radar identification involves asking the aircraft to activate the “ident” feature on the transponder. This causes the target to blink on the radar scope, making it easily identifiable.
PHRASEOLOGY-
(ID) IDENT
Example-
N123: “Socal approach, Cessna one two three, niner thousand five hundred.”You have not received a position report and thus may not use it to identify the target, you have to use another method such as asking them to ident.
APP: “Cessna one two three, Socal approach, ident.”
You observe the data block flash.
APP: “Cessna one two three, radar contact, one zero miles northwest of the Julian VOR.”
Reference: 7110.65 5-3-3a
¶ 2. Squawk Code
Another secondary radar identification method is instructing the pilot to change to a transponder code. The controller can then observe the code change on the radar display, aiding in target identification.
PHRASEOLOGY-
SQUAWK (code)
Example-
N123: “Socal approach, Cessna one two three, niner thousand five hundred.”
APP: “Cessna 123, Socal approach, squawk five seven two four.”You observe the data block change.
APP: “Cessna one two three, radar contact, one zero miles northwest of the Julian VOR.”
Reference: 7110.65 5-3-3b
¶ 3. Squawk Standby
The third method involves having the pilot squawk standby on the transponder. This causes the secondary information to disappear from the radar display. The controller can then instruct the pilot to squawk normally, and the secondary information returns.
PHRASEOLOGY-
SQUAWK STANDBY
followed by
SQUAWK NORMAL
Example-
N123: “Socal approach, Cessna one two three, niner thousand five hundred.”You have more than one secondary target in your sector but are not sure which one is the Cessna.
APP: “Cessna one two three, Socal Approach, squawk standby.”
You observe one of the targets lose its information.
APP: “Cessna one two three, squawk normal.”
You observe the information reappear.
APP: “Cessna one two three, radar contact, one zero miles northwest of the Julian VOR.”
Reference: 7110.65 5-3-3c
¶ Position information
You may have noticed that the controller advised the pilot of his position when he identified him. If you radar identify a target by any of the above secondary methods or by identifying turns, you must always state the position of the target in respect to a navaid or airport. There is no need to state position if you are identifying a target by means of a position report or within 1 mile after takeoff.
Reference: 7110.65 5-3-6
¶ Questionable identification
Use more than one method of identification when proximity of targets, duplication of observed action, or any other circumstances cause doubt during target identification.
Reference: 7110.65 5-3-5
¶ Monitoring and Traffic Management
With radar identification established, ATC controllers continually monitor the aircraft’s progress and provide necessary instructions for maintaining safe separation from other aircraft. They also manage traffic flow, ensuring that aircraft follow their assigned routes and altitudes.
¶ Handoff Procedures
As an aircraft transitions from one ATC sector to another, radar identification and control responsibility are smoothly transferred between controllers through established handoff procedures, ensuring uninterrupted monitoring and guidance.
Aircraft handed off from one radar controller to another radar controller do not need to be radar identified again.
¶ 3. Radar Separation
Radar Site Separation, Adjacent Airspace/Edge of Scope Separation, IFR Vertical Separation Minima, VFR Separation in B/C, Positive Separation/Control, Radar Wake Turbulence, Radar Traffic Advisories, Visual Separation, Merging Target Procedures
The minimum separation required between aircraft depends on their aircraft types, the airspace that they are in, and whether they are IFR or VFR. There are two types of radar separation, lateral and vertical. In order for aircraft to be positively separated one of these must occur.
¶ Lateral separation
Simplified for IVAO use, these are the separation requirements without taking into account wake turbulence or visual separation:
¶ Class B airspace
IFR-IFR: 3 miles, 1000ft
IFR/VFR-VFR and either aircraft is >19000 lbs or a jet: 1.5 miles, 500ft
IFR/VFR-VFR <19000 lbs: target resolution, 500ft
¶ Class C airspace
IFR-IFR: 3 miles, 1000ft
IFR-VFR: target resolution, 500ft
VFR-VFR: sequencing to primary airport, traffic advisories and safety alerts
¶ Class D airspace
IFR-IFR: 3 miles, 1000ft
IFR/VFR-VFR: sequencing, traffic advisories and safety alerts
¶ Class E airspace
IFR-IFR: 3 miles, 1000ft
IFR/VFR-VFR: traffic advisories and safety alerts
¶ TRSA airspace
IFR-IFR: 3 miles, 1000ft
IFR/VFR-VFR: target resolution, 500ft
Remember, that you must have aircraft at least half the required lateral separation from your sector edge. This is to ensure positive separation with the neighboring controller’s aircraft. An IFR aircraft must always be kept at least 1.5 miles from the sector edge to ensure separation from other aircraft an adjacent controller may be working with. This ensures the minimum 3 mile separation between the two aircraft.
In some of the requirements above, the term target resolution was mentioned. Target resolution procedures mean that the targets may not touch and that a mandatory traffic advisory must be issued.
¶ Wake turbulence separation
Some aircraft require specific lateral separation depending on their wake turbulence category. Information regarding weight and wake turbulence category can be found in FAAO 7360.1
Separate aircraft operating directly behind, or directly behind and less than 1,000 feet below, or following an aircraft conducting an instrument approach by
Behind super:
- Heavy - 6 miles
- Large - 7 miles
- Small - 8 miles
Behind heavy:
- Heavy - 4 miles
- Large or small - 5 miles
Small behind B757 - 4 miles, when operating less than 500 below.
In addition to that, you must separate an aircraft from another aircraft landing on the same runway by ensuring that the following separation minima exists at the time the preceding aircraft crosses the runway threshold:
- Small behind large- 4 miles.
- Small behind heavy- 6 miles.
¶ Final approach course separation
You may use the minimum separation of 2.5 miles between aircraft established on the final approach course and within 10 miles from the landing runway provided that:
-
Both aircraft are of the same weight category
-
Super and heavy aircraft participate as the trailing aircraft only
-
The tower has a certified tower radar display
Reference: 7110.65 5-5-2 to 5-5-4
¶ Vertical separation
You may separate aircraft vertically provided they both have valid Mode-C readouts. In order to separate vertically, you may assign altitudes to comply with the above separation requirements. However, vertical separation may only be used when the aircraft is level, in other words, if you may only issue a descent to an altitude when the previous aircraft at that altitude has started a descent.
¶ Methods to vertically separate targets:
-
Assign altitudes to aircraft, provided valid Mode C altitude information is monitored and the applicable separation minima is maintained at all times.
-
Assign an altitude to an aircraft after the aircraft previously at that altitude has been issued a climb/descent clearance and is observed, or reports, leaving the altitude.
Example-
“American 123” is following “United 345” 2 miles in trail. American 123 is at 8000ft and United 345 is at 7000ft. They are both vertically separated.LAS_APP: “United 345, descend and maintain 6000ft”
LAS_APP: “American 123, descend and maintain 7000ft”
You may think this is ok as both are separated by 1000ft but you are not complying with part 1 “the applicable separation minima is maintained at all times”. American may start its descent earlier and therefore you would have a separation bust as they are 2 miles apart. This would be the correct way to separate both aircraft vertically:
LAS_APP: “United 345, descend and maintain 6000ft”
UAL354 is observed leaving 7000ft
LAS_APP: “American 123, descend and maintain 7000ft”
This way you are complying with part 2 and you don’t have to worry about part 1
Reference: 7110.65 5-5-5
¶ Visual separation
Visual separation takes the responsibility to separate aircraft from the controller to the pilot provided that there is standard radar separation before and after the application of visual separation.
You may use visual separation up to (but not including) FL180 provided that you inform the pilot of the traffic and he has the traffic in sight. However, you must:
-
Tell the pilot about the other aircraft including position, direction and, unless it is obvious, the other aircraft’s intention.
-
Obtain acknowledgment from the pilot that the other aircraft is in sight.
-
Instruct the pilot to maintain visual separation from that aircraft.
-
Advise the pilot if the radar targets appear likely to converge.
-
If the aircraft are on converging courses, inform the other aircraft of the traffic and that visual separation is being applied.
-
If the pilot advises he/she has the traffic in sight and will maintain visual separation from it (the pilot must use that entire phrase), the controller need only “approve” the operation instead of restating the instructions.
PHRASEOLOGY-
TRAFFIC, (clock position and distance), (direction)-BOUND, (type of aircraft), (intentions and other relevant information).
If applicable,ON CONVERGING COURSE.
DO YOU HAVE IT IN SIGHT?
If the answer is in the affirmative,
MAINTAIN VISUAL SEPARATION.If the pilot advises he/she has the traffic in sight and will maintain visual separation from it (pilot must use that entire phrase):
APPROVED.
If aircraft are on converging courses, advise the other aircraft:
TRAFFIC, (clock position and distance), (direction)-BOUND, (type of aircraft), HAS YOU IN SIGHT AND WILL MAINTAIN VISUAL SEPARATION.
Example-
LAS_APP: “American 123, traffic, 2 o’clock, 9 miles, southeast-bound, CRJ-200, level 13000, on converging course, do you have it in sight?”AAL123: “Traffic in sight”
LAS_APP: “American 123, maintain visual separation”
Example-
LAS_APP: “Skywest 456, traffic, 10 o’clock, 9 miles, west-bound, Boeing 737, climbing through 11000 for 17000, has you in sight and will maintain visual separation”LAS_APP: “American 123, traffic, 12 o’clock, 9 miles, west-bound, CRJ-200, level 13000, do you have it in sight?”
AAL123: “Traffic in sight and will maintain visual separation”
LAS_APP: “American 123, approved”
Reference: 7110.65 7-2-1
¶ 4. Merging Target Procedures and Safety Alerts
A merging target procedure consists of two things: a mandatory traffic call and vectors around the traffic if the pilot requests it.
Except while aircraft are established on a holding pattern, you must apply merging target procedures to all aircraft at or above 10000ft or turbojet aircraft at any altitude.
Issue traffic information to those aircraft listed above whose targets appear likely to merge unless the aircraft are separated by more than the appropriate vertical separation minima.
If the pilot requests, vector his/her aircraft to avoid merging with the target of previously issued traffic.
PHRASEOLOGY-
TRAFFIC, (clock azimuth) O’CLOCK, (distance) MILES, (direction), (type), (altitude).
Example-
“Traffic twelve o’clock, seven miles, eastbound, MD-80, at one seven thousand.”“Delta One Twenty Three, fly heading two niner zero, vector for traffic. Traffic twelve o’clock, one zero miles, opposite direction, MD-80 eastbound at flight level three two zero.”
NOTE-
Aircraft closure rates are so rapid that when applying merging target procedures, controller issuance of traffic must be commenced in ample time for the pilot to decide if a vector is necessary.
Reference: 7110.65 5-1-8
¶ Safety alerts
Issue a safety alert to an aircraft if you are aware the aircraft is in a position/altitude which, in your judgment, places it in unsafe proximity to terrain, obstructions, or other aircraft. Once the pilot informs you action is being taken to resolve the situation, you may discontinue the issuance of further alerts. Do not assume that because someone else has responsibility for the aircraft that the unsafe situation has been observed and the safety alert issued; inform the appropriate controller.
Once the alert is issued, it is solely the pilot’s prerogative to determine what course of action, if any, will be taken. That’s why you must include the word “advise” in your transmission as you can only suggest appropriate courses of action. It is the pilot who will decide what to do.
¶ Terrain/obstruction alert
Immediately issue/initiate an alert to an aircraft if you are aware the aircraft is at an altitude which, in your judgment, places it in unsafe proximity to terrain/obstructions. Issue the alert as follows:
PHRASEOLOGY-
LOW ALTITUDE ALERT (call sign),
CHECK YOUR ALTITUDE IMMEDIATELY.
THE (as appropriate) MEA/MVA/MOCA/MIA IN YOUR AREA IS (altitude)
Example-
“Low altitude alert, Delta one twenty three, check your altitude immediately, the minimum enroute altitude in your area is 10000”
¶ Aircraft conflict
Immediately issue/initiate an alert to an aircraft if you are aware of another aircraft at an altitude which you believe places them in unsafe proximity. If feasible, offer the pilot an alternate course of action. When an alternate course of action is given, end the transmission with the word “immediately.”
PHRASEOLOGY-
TRAFFIC ALERT (call sign) (position of aircraft) ADVISE YOU TURN LEFT/RIGHT (heading),and/or
CLIMB/DESCEND (specific altitude if appropriate) IMMEDIATELY.
Example-
“Traffic alert, Delta one twenty three, 12 o’clock 2 miles advise you turn left immediately. BREAK. American four fifty six, 6 o’clock, 2 miles, advise you turn right immediately”
Reference: 7110.65 2-1-6
¶ 5. Vectoring
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HX9ZVUNgInk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kSzPqmtdbYc
Many times the approach position is associated with the term vector and this brings up the subsequent question: what is a vector? A vector is a heading given to provide navigational guidance by radar. You may vector aircraft for a number of reasons such as traffic, navigational guidance, noise abatement, etc.
You may vector an aircraft:
- In controlled airspace
- At or above the MVA (Minimum vectoring altitude)
- In airspace for which you have control jurisdiction, unless otherwise coordinated
NOTE-
VFR aircraft not at an altitude assigned by ATC may be vectored at any altitude. It is the responsibility of the pilot to comply with the applicable parts of CFR Title 14.
¶ Rules
There are three rules that apply to vectoring:
- Whenever you initiate a vector you must tell the pilot why (see reasons for vectoring below)
- Whenever you vector a pilot across a localizer/airway/radial they are expecting to join you must let them know (see reasons for vectoring below)
- Aircraft must be vectored to join the localizer or final approach course at 30 degrees or less if greater then two miles from the final approach fix, or less then 20 degrees if less then two miles from the final approach fix (if applicable), and 45 degrees if a helicopter.
¶ Methods
- Direction of turn (if required) and the magnetic heading to be flown. Note that you must pronounce each digit of a heading individually, and if a heading is less than 100 degrees, a leading zero must be added.
PHRASEOLOGY-
TURN RIGHT/LEFT HEADING (degrees)
FLY HEADING (degrees)
FLY PRESENT HEADING
DEPART (fix) HEADING (degrees)
Example-
“turn left heading zero three zero”
“fly heading zero three zero”
“depart Boulder City VOR heading zero eight zero”
- State the direction of turn and the number of degrees to turn, in group form
PHRASEOLOGY-
TURN (number of degrees) DEGREES LEFT/RIGHT
Example-
“turn ten degrees left”
- For NO-GYRO vectors, state the type of vector, direction of turn and when to stop
PHRASEOLOGY-
THIS WILL BE A NO-GYRO VECTOR, TURN LEFT/RIGHT
followed by
STOP TURN
Example-
“this will be a no-gyro vector, turn left”
“stop turn”
¶ Reasons for vectoring
Whenever you initiate a vector, you have to inform the pilot of the reason for that vector. This only applies to the first vector. When vectoring departures, no reason must be stated as it is implied that it will be to the aircraft’s assigned route.
PHRASEOLOGY-
VECTOR TO (fix, airway)
VECTOR TO INTERCEPT (name of NAVAID) (specified) RADIAL
VECTOR TO FINAL APPROACH COURSE
VECTOR FOR SPACING
Example-
“depart Boulder City heading zero eight zero, vector to final approach course”
“turn ten degrees right, vector for spacing”
Inform the pilot when a vector will take the aircraft across a previously assigned nonradar route.
PHRASEOLOGY-
EXPECT VECTOR ACROSS (NAVAID radial) (airway/route/course) FOR (purpose)
Example-
“vector across Boulder City 213 radial for traffic”
Inform the aircraft whenever a vector will take it across the final approach course and state the reason for such action.
NOTE-
In the event you are unable to so inform the aircraft, the pilot is not expected to turn inbound on the final approach course unless approach clearance has been issued.
PHRASEOLOGY-
EXPECT VECTORS ACROSS FINAL FOR (purpose)
Example-
“vector across final for resequencing”
Reference: 7110.65 5-6-2 5-9-3
¶ Vectoring below the minimum vectoring altitude
The minimum vectoring altitude (or MVA), is, as its name suggests, the lowest altitude at which you can vector aircraft. You always must vector aircraft at or above this altitude except in the following cases:
- When a diverse vector area (DVA) has been established, you may vector aircraft below the MVA within the DVA.
- You may vector a VFR aircraft below the MVA who has not been assigned an altitude as it is the pilot’s responsibility to maintain appropriate terrain separation.
Reference: 7110.65 5-6-3
¶ Ending radar navigational guidance
You have to provide radar navigational guidance to an aircraft you have initiated vectors until they are on a heading that will, within a reasonable distance, intercept the nonradar route to be flown. The pilot must be informed of his position in respect to a fix in his route unless he has RNAV, FMS or DME and is being vectored to a VOR/VORTAC
PHRASEOLOGY-
(position if required), RESUME OWN NAVIGATION
or
FLY HEADING (degrees), WHEN ABLE PROCEED DIRECT (fix)
or
RESUME (name/number SID/STAR)
Example-
“7 miles west of Boulder City, resume own navigation”
“fly heading zero six zero, when able proceed direct Boulder City VOR”
“resume MCCRN five departure”
Reference: 7110.65 5-6-2
¶ 6. Altitude Adjustments
When issuing altitudes you have to ensure that the aircraft operating along a published route with a published MEA (minimum en route altitude) are given altitudes at or above the MEA. If the aircraft is operating along a route with a lower MEA than MVA, you may descend the aircraft to any altitude above the MEA provided that the aircraft will remain on its route. For example, an aircraft operating on an airway with MEA 4000 and the MVA in the area is 5000 may be descended to 4000 as long as the aircraft continues on the airway.
PHRASEOLOGY-
CLIMB/DESCEND AND MAINTAIN (altitude)
In this case, the pilot is expected to start descend upon receiving clearance and should descend at the rates published in the AIM. However, if you allow the pilot to descend at his discretion he may conduct a descent within the context of the term “at pilot’s discretion” as described in the AIM.
PHRASEOLOGY-
CLIMB/DESCEND AT PILOT’S DISCRETION
Example-
LAS_APP: “American 123, descend and maintain 8000”
LAS_APP: “American 123, descend at pilot’s discretion, maintain 8000”
You may also give altitude restrictions for climb/descend clearances:
PHRASEOLOGY-
CROSS (fix, waypoint) AT (altitude).
CROSS (fix, waypoint) AT OR ABOVE/BELOW (altitude).
CROSS (number of miles) MILES (direction) OF (name of fix, waypoint) AT (altitude).
CROSS (number of miles) MILES (direction) OF (name of fix, waypoint) AT OR ABOVE/BELOW (altitude).
Example-
LAS_APP: “American 123, cross IPUMY at or above 11000,descend and maintain 8000”
LAS_APP: “American 123, cross BLD at and maintain 8000,”
You may want to add the following information to some climb/descent clearances:
PHRASEOLOGY-
AFTER PASSING (fix, waypoint),
or
AT (time) (time in hours, minutes, and nearest quarter minute).
or
CLIMB/DESCEND TO REACH (altitude) AT (time (issue time check) or fix, waypoint),
or
A POINT (number of miles) MILES (direction) OF (name of DME NAVAID),
or
MAINTAIN (altitude) UNTIL (time (issue time check), fix, waypoint), THEN CLIMB/DESCEND AND MAINTAIN (altitude).
Many STARs into ZLA airports are profile STARs and you may give clearances to aircraft so they follow the published altitudes on the charts. Note that charts that contain published “EXPECT” altitudes do not fall under this category.
PHRASEOLOGY-
DESCEND VIA (name and number of STAR),
Example-
LAS_APP: “American 123, descend via the SUNST four arrival”
Some arrival procedures also contain runway transitions. If one is published on an arrival, controllers must advise pilots on initial contact or as soon as possible of the transition to be flown. If the transition is assigned less than 10 miles from the runway transition waypoint, radar vectors to final must be provided.
PHRASEOLOGY-
(STAR/RNAV STAR/FMSP name and number) ARRIVAL.
(STAR/RNAV STAR/FMSP name and number) ARRIVAL, (transition name) TRANSITION.
CHANGE/AMEND TRANSITION TO (runway number).
CHANGE/AMEND TRANSITION TO (runway number),
TURN LEFT/RIGHT or HEADING (heading) FOR VECTOR TO FINAL APPROACH COURSE.
Example-
LAS_APP: "American 123, descend via the SITEE two arrival, runway 26L transition.
LAX_F_APP: “American 123, change transition to runway 6L.”
You can also give clearances involving multiple altitudes. This will allow the aircraft to be at any altitude within the specified range:
PHRASEOLOGY-
MAINTAIN BLOCK (altitude) THROUGH (altitude)
Example-
LAS_APP: “American 123, maintain block 10000 through 8000”
Reference: 7110.65 4-5-7 and 4-7-1
¶ 7. Speed Adjustments
Keep speed adjustments to the minimum necessary to achieve or maintain required or desired spacing. Avoid adjustments requiring alternate decreases and increases. Permit pilots to resume normal speed when previously specified adjustments are no longer needed. Remember, it is the pilot’s responsibility and prerogative to refuse speed adjustment that he/she considers excessive or contrary to the aircraft’s operating specifications.
While working approach control, you may use speed adjustments to obtain required spacing, better descent gradients or when tight turns are required. Remember, at greater speeds, a descent will take up more space and turns will have greater radii. Also, remember the technique of “vector for space, speed to hold space.”
On your scope, you will see displayed the aircraft’s ground speed, however, express speed adjustments in terms of knots based on indicated airspeed (IAS) in 10-knot increments. IAS varies with altitude, a plane at 10000ft can be reporting a GS of 280kts but indicating 250kts.
Whenever you issue a speed restriction, don’t expect it to be immediate as it takes time for an aircraft to speed up or slow down. If an aircraft is descending, they will likely also have trouble slowing down with a descent.
A pilot may refuse a speed restriction if he considers that it will prevent correct aircraft operation.
At the time approach clearance is issued, previously issued speed adjustments must be restated if required. Approach clearances cancel any previously assigned speed adjustment. Pilots are expected to make their own speed adjustments to complete the approach unless the adjustments are restated.
You may not issue speed restrictions to:
-
Aircraft flying a holding pattern
-
Inside the final approach fix on final or a point 5 miles from the runway, whichever is closer to the runway.
Reference: 7110.65 5-7-1
¶ Methods
a. You can instruct an aircraft to:
-
Maintain present/specific speed.
-
Maintain specified speed or greater/less.
-
Maintain the highest/lowest practical speed.
-
Increase or reduce to a specified speed or by a specified number of knots.
PHRASEOLOGY-
SAY AIRSPEED.
MAINTAIN PRESENT SPEED.
MAINTAIN (specific speed) KNOTS.
MAINTAIN (specific speed) KNOTS OR GREATER.
DO NOT EXCEED (speed) KNOTS.
MAINTAIN MAXIMUM FORWARD SPEED.
MAINTAIN SLOWEST PRACTICAL SPEED.
INCREASE/REDUCE SPEED:
TO (specified speed in knots in individual form),
or
(number of knots) KNOTS.
Example-
LAS_APP: “American 123, maintain present speed”
LAS_APP: “American 123, maintain two three zero knots”
LAS_APP: “American 123, maintain two three zero knots or greater”
LAS_APP: “American 123, do not exceed two three zero knots”
LAS_APP: “American 123, maintain maximum forward speed”
LAS_APP: “American 123, maintain slowest practical speed”
LAS_APP: “American 123, reduce speed to two one zero”
LAS_APP: “American 123, reduce speed ten knots”
NOTE-
A pilot operating at or above 10,000 feet MSL on an assigned speed adjustment greater than 250 knots is expected to comply with 14 CFR Section 91.117(a) when cleared below 10,000 feet MSL, within domestic airspace, without notifying ATC.
b. Simultaneous speed reduction and descent can be extremely difficult, particularly for turbojet aircraft. Specifying which action is to be accomplished first removes any doubt the pilot may have as to controller intent or priority. Specify which action is expected first when combining speed reduction with a descent clearance.
- Speed reductions prior to descent.
PHRASEOLOGY-
REDUCE SPEED:
TO (specified speed),
or
(number of knots) KNOTS.
THEN, DESCEND AND MAINTAIN (altitude).
- Speed reduction following descent.
PHRASEOLOGY-
DESCEND AND MAINTAIN (altitude).
THEN, REDUCE SPEED:
TO (specified speed in knots),
or
(number of knots) KNOTS.
NOTE-
When specifying descent prior to speed reduction, consider the maximum speed requirements specified in 14 CFR Section 91.117. It may be necessary for the pilot to level off temporarily and reduce speed prior to descending below 10,000 feet MSL.
c. Specify combined speed/altitude fix crossing restrictions.
PHRASEOLOGY-
CROSS (fix) AT AND MAINTAIN (altitude) AT (specified speed) KNOTS.
Example-
LAS_APP: “Cross Boulder City at and maintain seven thousand at two one zero knots.”
Reference: 7110.65 5-7-2
¶ Minima
When assigning airspeeds, use the following recommended minima:
- To aircraft operating between FL 280 and 10,000 feet, a speed not less than 250 knots
- When an operational advantage will be realized, speeds lower than the recommended minima may be applied.
¶ 3. To arrival aircraft operating below 10,000 feet:
a. Turbojet aircraft. A speed not less than 210 knots; except when the aircraft is within 20 flying miles of the runway threshold of the airport of intended landing, a speed not less than 170 knots.
b. Turboprop aircraft. A speed not less than 200 knots; except when the aircraft is within 20 flying miles of the runway threshold of the airport of intended landing, a speed not less than 150 knots.
¶ 4. Departures:
a. Turbojet aircraft. A speed not less than 230 knots.
b. Turboprop aircraft. A speed not less than 150 knots.
¶ 5. Helicopters. A speed not less than 60 knots.
Reference: 7110.65 5-7-3
Lower speeds may be assigned if operationally advantageous. Good practice in that instance would be to add an “if unable, advise” to the end of the restriction.
Example-
LAS_APP: “American 123, cleared visual approach runway 26L. Reduce speed to 160, if unable, advise.”
¶ Termination
Advise aircraft when speed adjustment is no longer needed.
PHRASEOLOGY-
RESUME NORMAL SPEED.
COMPLY WITH SPEED RESTRICTIONS.
RESUME PUBLISHED SPEED.
DELETE SPEED RESTRICTIONS.
Reference: 7110.65 5-7-4
¶ 8. Pop-up IFR Clearances
Pilots may depart VFR and get IFR clearance while enroute.
Treat an aircraft planning VFR for the initial part of flight and IFR for the latter part as a VFR departure. Issue a clearance to this aircraft when it requests IFR clearance approaching the fix where it proposes to start IFR operations. The phraseology CLEARED TO (destination) AIRPORT AS FILED may be used with abbreviated departure clearance procedures.
When a VFR aircraft, operating below the minimum altitude for IFR operations, requests an IFR clearance and you are aware that the pilot is unable to climb in VFR conditions to the minimum IFR altitude:
Before issuing a clearance, ask if the pilot is able to maintain terrain and obstruction clearance during a climb to the minimum IFR altitude.
NOTE-
Pilots of pop-up aircraft are responsible for terrain and obstacle clearance until reaching minimum instrument altitude (MIA) or minimum en route altitude (MEA). Pilot compliance with an ATC instruction transfers that responsibility to the controller; therefore, do not assign (or imply) specific course guidance that will (or could) be in effect below the MIA or MEA.
PHRASEOLOGY-
(Aircraft call sign), ARE YOU ABLE TO MAINTAIN YOUR OWN TERRAIN AND OBSTRUCTION CLEARANCE UNTIL REACHING (appropriate MVA/MIA/MEA/OROCA)
Example-
LAS_APP: “N123AB, are you able to maintain your own terrain and obstruction clearance until reaching 6,500?”
If the pilot is able to maintain terrain and obstruction separation, issue the appropriate clearance.
If unable to maintain terrain and obstruction separation, instruct the pilot to maintain VFR and to state intentions.
Reference: 7110.65 4-2-8
¶ 9. Uncontrolled Airport Operations
Uncontrolled airports are those without an operational controlled tower. This may be due to the fact that the tower is closed or it doesn’t have a tower at all.
Traffic will use the CTAF (Common Traffic Advisory Frequency) to get in and out of the airport. IFR traffic is somewhat restricted as without an operating tower only one IFR aircraft can depart or arrive at the field. This is known as the one-in one-out rule.
¶ Departures
When IFR traffic depart uncontrolled fields, they have two options:
- Receive their IFR clearance on the ground
- Depart VFR and obtain IFR in the air (pop-up IFR clearance)
¶ Aircraft will receive IFR clearance on the ground
If this happens, it is pretty much like a standard clearance from a towered field although there are some differences.
- It is the pilot’s responsibility to select the runway in use so you may not assign a runway.
- From the time you release the departure, there may not be any other IFR departures or arrivals to the same field. It is now “closed”.
¶ Departure releases
Aircraft are automatically released for departure when an IFR clearance is issued. However, sometimes conditions must be placed on this release to guarantee separation from other aircraft. The aircraft may also need to be held indefinitely (for example, until another arriving aircraft cancels IFR). There are many techniques to ensure safe and expeditious IFR operation out of these airports.
¶ Reporting instructions
Aircraft may be instructed to report when airborne or passing through a specific altitude.
PHRASEOLOGY-
REPORT AIRBORNEor
REPORT passing (altitude)
THIS FREQUENCY.
Often, no reporting instructions are necessary, and aircraft should be advised to monitor your frequency.
PHRASEOLOGY-
MONITOR THIS FREQUENCY AT ALL TIMES.
¶ Clearance void times
Clearance void times may be issued at airports not served by control towers to allow the airspace to be reopened after a certain time.
The facility delivering a clearance void time to a pilot must issue a time check.
PHRASEOLOGY-
CLEARANCE VOID IF NOT OFF BY (time). TIME (current time).
Aircraft must be instructed to contact you or another controller if their clearance expires.
PHRASEOLOGY-
IF NOT OFF BY (clearance void time), ADVISE (facility) NOT LATER THAN (time) OF INTENTIONS.
¶ Release times
Release times must be issued to pilots when necessary to specify the earliest time an aircraft may depart. The facility issuing a release time to a pilot must include a time check.
PHRASEOLOGY-
(Aircraft identification) RELEASED FOR DEPARTURE AT (time in hours and/or minutes),
and if required,
IF NOT OFF BY (time), ADVISE (facility) NOT LATER THAN (time) OF INTENTIONS.
TIME NOW (time in hours, minutes, and nearest quarter minute).
¶ Hold for release (HFR)
“Hold for release” instructions must be used when necessary to inform a pilot or a controller that a departure clearance is not valid until additional instructions are received.
When issuing hold for release instructions, include departure delay information.
When conditions allow, release the aircraft as soon as possible.
NOTE-
A release time is a departure restriction issued to a pilot (either directly or through authorized relay) to separate a departing aircraft from other traffic.
PHRASEOLOGY-
HOLD FOR RELEASE, EXPECT (time in hours and/or minutes) DEPARTURE DELAY.followed by
(ID) RELEASED FOR DEPARTURE.
A clearance void time may be added to this departure release, if applicable.
Reference: 7110.65 4-3-4
¶ Arrivals
Arrivals are similar to those to towered airports, the only differences being the fact that you don’t assign a runway and you must handoff the aircraft to the CTAF.
¶ Visual approaches
Controllers may initiate, or pilots may request, a visual approach even when an aircraft is being vectored for an instrument approach and the pilot subsequently reports:
- The airport or the runway in sight at airports with operating control towers.
- The airport in sight at airports without a control tower.
PHRASEOLOGY-
(Call sign) (control instructions as required) CLEARED VISUAL APPROACH TO (airport name)
Example-
N123, cleared visual approach to Boulder City Airport
¶ Instrument approaches
If the instrument approach is a circling approach, do not state a runway to circle. Circling approach instructions may only be given for aircraft landing at airports with operational control towers.
Example-
N123, cleared VOR-A approach
¶ Communication release
If an IFR aircraft intends to land at an airport not served by a tower, approve a change to the advisory service frequency when you no longer require direct communications.
PHRASEOLOGY-
CHANGE TO ADVISORY FREQUENCY APPROVED.
NOTE-
An expeditious frequency change permits the aircraft to receive timely local airport traffic information in accordance with AC 90-42, Traffic Advisory Practices at Airports Without Operating Control Towers.
¶ Cancellation of IFR flight plan
If necessary, before instructing an IFR aircraft arriving at an airport not served by an air traffic control tower or flight service station to change to the common traffic advisory frequency, provide the pilot with instructions on how to cancel his/her IFR flight plan.
PHRASEOLOGY-
(Call sign) REPORT CANCELLATION OF IFR ON (frequency).
Respond to a pilot’s cancellation of his/her IFR flight plan as follows:
PHRASEOLOGY-
(Call sign) IFR CANCELLATION RECEIVED.
The purpose of canceling IFR in the air when weather conditions permit is to expedite the flow of traffic, as no other aircraft may arrive or depart under IFR until the arriving aircraft cancels IFR, either in the air or on the ground.
Example-
“N123, cleared visual approach to Boulder City airport”
“N123, report cancellation of IFR on one three five point zero, change to advisory frequency approved”If canceling IFR in the air:
“N123, IFR cancellation received, squawk VFR, change to advisory frequency approved”
Reference: 7110.65 7-4-3, 4-8-8, 4-8-6, 4-2-10
¶ 10. Coordination: Pointouts and Handoffs
¶ Terms
a. Handoff. An action taken to transfer the radar identification of an aircraft from one controller to another if the aircraft will enter the receiving controller’s airspace and radio communications with the aircraft will be transferred.
b. Radar Contact. The term used to inform the controller initiating a handoff that the aircraft is identified and approval is granted for the aircraft to enter the receiving controller’s airspace.
c. Point Out. An action taken by a controller to transfer the radar identification of an aircraft to another controller if the aircraft will or may enter the airspace or protected airspace of another controller and radio communications will not be transferred.
d. Point Out Approved. The term used to inform the controller initiating a point out that the aircraft is identified and that approval is granted for the aircraft to enter the receiving controller’s airspace, as coordinated, without a communications transfer or the appropriate automated system response.
e. Traffic. A term used to transfer radar identification of an aircraft to another controller for the purpose of coordinating separation action. Traffic is normally issued:
- 1. In response to a handoff or point out;
- 2. In anticipation of a handoff or point out; or
- 3. In conjunction with a request for control of an aircraft.
f. Traffic Observed. The term used to inform the controller issuing the traffic restrictions that the traffic is identified and that the restrictions issued are understood and will be complied with.
¶ Methods
Transfer the radar identification of an aircraft by at least one of the following methods:
1. Physically point to the target on the receiving controller’s display.
2. Use landline voice communications.
3. Use automation capabilities.
When making a handoff, point-out, or issuing traffic restrictions, relay information to the receiving controller in the following order:
-
The position of the target relative to a fix, map symbol, or radar target known and displayed by both the receiving and transferring controller.
-
The aircraft identification, as follows:
(a) The aircraft call sign, or
(b) The discrete beacon code of the aircraft during interfacility point-outs only, if both the receiving and the transferring controllers agree. -
The assigned altitude, appropriate restrictions, and information that the aircraft is climbing or descending.
When initiating a manual handoff/pointout, the following phraseology applies:
PHRASEOLOGY-
HANDOFF/POINT-OUT/TRAFFIC (aircraft position) (aircraft ID), (altitude, restrictions, and other appropriate information, if applicable).
Example-
Handoff, 7 miles southwest of Boulder City VOR, N123AB, 7000.
When receiving a handoff, point-out, or traffic restrictions, respond to the transferring controller as follows:
PHRASEOLOGY-
(Aircraft ID) (restrictions, if applicable) RADAR CONTACT,or
(aircraft ID or discrete beacon code) (restrictions, if applicable) POINT-OUT APPROVED,
or
TRAFFIC OBSERVED,
or
UNABLE (appropriate information, as required).
¶ 2.1 Handoffs
The transferring controller must:
a. Complete a radar handoff prior to an aircraft’s entering the airspace delegated to the receiving controller.
b. Ensure that, prior to transferring communications:
- 1. Potential violations of adjacent airspace and potential conflicts between aircraft in their own area of jurisdiction are resolved.
- 2. Restrictions issued to ensure separation are passed to the receiving controller.
c. Comply with restrictions issued by the receiving controller unless otherwise coordinated.
d. Transfer communications when the transfer of radar identification has been accepted.
e. Advise the receiving controller of pertinent information not contained in the data block or flight progress strip unless covered in a LOA or SOP. Pertinent information includes:
- 1. Assigned heading.
- 2. Air speed restrictions.
- 3. Altitude information issued.
- 4. Observed track or deviation from the last route clearance.
- 5. Any other pertinent information.
f. Issue restrictions to the receiving controller which are necessary to maintain separation from other aircraft within your area of jurisdiction before releasing control of the aircraft.
g. Consider the target being transferred as identified on the receiving controller’s display when the receiving controller acknowledges receipt verbally or has accepted an automated handoff.
The receiving controller must:
a. Ensure that the target position corresponds with the position given by the transferring controller before accepting a handoff.
b. Issue restrictions that are needed for the aircraft to enter your sector safely before accepting the handoff.
c. Comply with restrictions issued by the initiating controller unless otherwise coordinated.
d. Before you issue control instructions directly to an aircraft that is within another controller’s area of jurisdiction that will change that aircraft’s heading, route, speed, altitude, or beacon code, ensure that coordination has been accomplished with the controller within whose area of jurisdiction the control instructions will be issued.
e. If you decide, after accepting the transfer of radar identification, to delay the aircraft’s climb or descent through the vertical limits of the transferring controller’s area of jurisdiction, advise the transferring controller of that decision as soon as possible. You now have the responsibility to ensure that the necessary coordination is accomplished with any intervening controller(s) whose area of jurisdiction is affected by that delay, unless otherwise specified in a LOA or a SOP.
¶ 2.2 Pointouts
The transferring controller must:
1. Obtain verbal approval before permitting an aircraft to enter the receiving controller’s delegated airspace.
2. Obtain the receiving controller’s approval before making any changes to an aircraft’s flight path, altitude, or data block information after the point out has been approved.
3. Comply with restrictions issued by the receiving controller unless otherwise coordinated.
4. Be responsible for subsequent radar handoffs and communications transfer, including flight data revisions and coordination, unless otherwise agreed to by the receiving controller or as specified in a LOA.
The receiving controller must:
1. Ensure that the target position corresponds with the position given by the transferring controller.
2. Be responsible for separation between point out aircraft and other aircraft for which he/she has separation responsibility.
3. Issue restrictions necessary to provide separation from other aircraft within his/her area of jurisdiction.
¶ 11. Instrument Approaches
Approaches are named based on the navigation system required to execute the approach. A VOR approach requires a VOR receiver. A VOR/DME approach requires both a VOR receiver and DME system.
Most approaches are aligned with a runway and will include a runway number in the approach title (VOR RWY 25); these approaches include straight-in landing minimums to the runway in the title.
Approches that are not aligned with the any runway withh use a letter instead, eg: VOR-A approach.
Other examples: ILS/LOC, RNAV (GPS), RNAV (RNP), GLS
¶ 11.1 Navigation on Approach
There are several ways a pilot can navigate on an approach. These include localizers, VOR radials, TACAN radials, NDB bearings, DME arcs, and area navigation (RNAV). For the most part, the means of navigation used by the pilot is transparent to a controller, but the phraseology for each type of navigation aid varies. For much more detailed information on each type of navigation aid, see the Aeronautical Information Manual chapter 1.
¶ Localizer
Localizers are normally used with ILS approaches, and transmit a single course which is used to navigate to the runway with high precision (they also provide a “backcourse” signal in the opposite direction). Localizers can also be used to identify intersections (for example, see GUYBE intersection, a fix on V107, which is identified by the ILS 25 localizer at OXR) or for LDA (localizer type directional aid) approaches. The width of a localizer will vary based on the length of the runway. If the localizer is offset from the centerline of the runway by more than three degrees, it is called an LDA approach. For examples, see the LDA-C approach to VNY and the LDA 20R to SNA. The means of navigation is the same for the pilot as it would be for an ILS or LOC approach. If a controller wants the pilot to intercept a localizer the phraseology should be “intercept the runway two five left localizer” or it could be just “join the localizer” if there’s only one for the airport or the pilot knows which approach to expect at the airport. An approach may also be defined using the “backcourse” of the localizer. For examples of these, see the LOC/DME BC-A to SMX or the LOC BC 2L to SNA.
Reference AIM 1-1-9-b “Localizers”
¶ RNAV
The final form of navigation on an instrument approach is area navigation. This is normally thought of as GPS, but other systems can provide area navigation capability. Area navigation allows a pilot to navigate directly (or even via curved paths like a DME arc) between fixes. The phraseology associated with RNAV is pretty simple; it normally just consists of clearing pilots direct to fixes. Generally, RNAV approaches are the same as any other instrument approach. There are some subtle differences between RNAV approaches and conventional approaches.
Reference AIM 1-2-1 “Area Navigation"
¶ 11.2 Approach Clearances
The first question to ask when dealing with an instrument approach is which section(s) of the 7110.65 is applicable. All approach clearances must comply with section 4-8. Aircraft vectored to the final approach course must receive approach clearances that also comply with section 5-9.
The main distinction between these sections is that approach clearances issued using the phraseology in section 4-8 must have the aircraft routed over an initial approach fix or feeder fix. If the aircraft will not overfly an initial approach fix/feeder fix, its approach clearance must use the phraseology prescribed by section 5-9.
¶ Section 4-8 (Approach will begin at an IAF)
If a pilot will overfly an IAF or feeder fix on his route (in the case of an RNAV approach, this same section can be used for aircraft routed over an intermediate fix as well), the approach clearance can be issued using this section. This section is very straight-forward, and there is no difference between non-precision and precision approaches; all approaches are handled in the same way. If the pilot is flying a published route (airway, SID, or STAR) which includes minimum altitude information all the way to the IAF or feeder fix, the pilot just needs to be cleared for the approach. This can be done in a few different ways:
“Cleared Approach” - This authorizes the pilot to fly any instrument approach (note that a visual approach would require a separate clearance) at the airport; obviously, it should only be used when the controller doesn’t care which instrument approach the pilot flies.
“Cleared ILS Approach” - If there’s only one ILS approach (or VOR/NDB/RNAV, etc) at the airport, then the runway information is not required.
“Cleared ILS runway 18R approach” - If there’s more than one type of an approach at an airport then the runway information must be included.
Depending on the type of approach and the direction from which the pilot approaches, the pilot may or may not have to perform some type of course reversal (procedure turn, holding pattern reversal, or teardrop). We will cover some scenarios involving what to expect from the pilot later in this article.
If the pilot is not flying a published route (i.e. the pilot is not routed on an airway, SID, or STAR), then the pilot does not have minimum altitude information like he would if he was flying a published route. In that case he must be assigned an altitude restriction to keep him safely above the terrain until he is established on a published route, then cleared for the approach using the same phraseology as above. This can be phrased a few different ways, but normally will be something like, “cross XXX at or above 5000, cleared VOR approach.” Unlike vectored approach clearances, when issuing clearances under this section, distance from a fix is not required in the approach clearance.
¶ Section 5-9 (Approach does not begin at an IAF)
If a pilot will not overfly an IAF or feeder fix on his route, then he will be radar vectored to the final approach course. Even though he might be navigating direct to a fix on final, his approach clearance is still governed by this section. There are times when a controller may not radar vector to final; in those cases, the pilot must be issued a clearance so that he will overfly an IAF and issued an approach clearance using the phraseology above.
¶ Requirements to Vector an aircraft to final
Section 5-9 has a long list of rules to be used when vectoring to final. We’ll look at each paragraph and discuss its meaning below.
“Vector arriving aircraft to intercept the final approach course: …”
Paragraph 5-9-1-a:
“At least 2 miles outside the approach gate”
This provision has been established to permit the pilot an opportunity to become oriented on the approach. The approach gate is 1 mile from the final approach fix, so the vector to final must intercept final at least 3 miles from the final approach fix. Note the emphasis on the word “intercept.” It’s not that the pilot must be issued the turn to final 3 miles from the FAF, but that the pilot must intercept 3 miles from the FAF. Obviously, the turn to final will need to be made further out. There are two exceptions to this rule. One is for good weather, the other is if the pilot requests to be turned on closer to the FAF; see section 5-9 for more information.
Paragraph 5-9-1-c:
“For a precision approach, at an altitude not above the glideslope/glidepath or below the minimum glideslope intercept altitude specified on the approach procedure chart.”
This is fairly self explanatory, but one issue that comes up from time-to-time is how to figure out what altitude is “not above the glideslope.”
The easiest way to comply with this rule is to vector to intercept at or below the altitude published for the next fix on the approach. At some airports, the MVA will be higher than the minimum altitude charted. In that case, you can use a little math to estimate where the glideslope is. Most glideslopes have an angle of three degrees. That works out to about 300’ per mile. So if the aircraft will intercept final on a 10 mile final, he should be no higher than 3000’ above the airport elevation.
Paragraph 5-9-1-d:
“For a nonprecision approach, at an altitude which will allow descent in accordance with the published procedure”
This rule is a little more vague. However, you can comply with it using the same rules-of-thumb give above for precision approaches. Either vector to final at the next charted minimum altitude on the procedure, or use the 300’ per mile rule. Again, several examples are provided later.
Paragraph 5-9-2-a:
“Assign headings that will permit final approach course interception on a track that does not exceed [a 30 degree angle to the final approach course]”
This quote is paraphrased since the 7110.65 paragraph is slightly more complex. But, in almost all cases, you must vector to the aircraft to intercept final at no more than a 30 degree angle to final.
Paragraph 5-9-3:
“Inform the aircraft whenever a vector will take it across the final approach course and state the reason for such action.”
PHRASEOLOGY-
EXPECT VECTORS ACROSS FINAL FOR (purpose).
EXAMPLE-
“EXPECT VECTORS ACROSS FINAL FOR SPACING.”
¶ Phraseology for vectored approach clearances
The phraseology required for vectored approaches to final is a little more complex than for approaches from an IAF. The basic phraseology uses the PTAC phraseology. In a standard case, the aircraft must be issued its Position relative to a fix on the approach, a Turn to intercept the final approach course (generally must be a 30 degree intercept angle or less as discussed above), an Altitude to maintain until established on the approach, and finally issued the Clearance for the approach.
“N123SX, Six miles from JETSA, turn right heading two three zero, maintain two thousand five hundred until established on the localizer, cleared I-L-S runway two four right approach.”
“N123SX, Five miles from BEVEY, turn left heading two four zero, maintain three thousand until established on the final approach course, cleared V-O-R Alpha approach.”
In some cases, it isn’t necessary to issue all elements of the “PTAC.” All vectored approach clearances must include at least the “P” and “C” of PTAC. If the aircraft is already established on the approach, then a turn is not needed (because the pilot is already tracking the approach course) and an altitude isn’t necessary (since this information is published on the approach chart). The phraseology should be:
“N123SX, Eight miles from BUDDE, cleared I-L-S runway eight approach.”
You might also clear an aircraft direct to a fix on the approach (if this fix is not an IAF, then it’s still considered a vector, so the intercept angle must be no more than 30 degrees). If an aircraft has been cleared direct to a fix on the approach, then the “T” of PTAC isn’t required:
“N123SX, Five miles from PETIS, cross PETIS at/or above four thousand two hundred, cleared I-L-S runway two six left approach.”
or
“N123SX, Five miles from PETIS, maintain four thousand two hundred until established on the localizer, cleared I-L-S runway two six left approach.”
If the aircraft is already assigned a heading that will permit an appropriate intercept angle, then the heading may be omitted:
“N123SX, Seven miles from KOAKS, maintain five thousand until established on the final approach course, cleared Localizer D-M-E Backcourse Alpha approach.”
¶ 12. Visual Approaches
A visual approach is an ATC authorization for an aircraft on an IFR flight plan to proceed visually and clear of clouds to the airport of intended landing. A visual approach is not a standard instrument approach procedure and has no missed approach segment. An aircraft unable to complete a landing from a visual approach must be handled as any go-around and appropriate IFR separation must be provided until the aircraft lands or the pilot cancels their IFR flight plan.
To avoid duplicate documentation please refer to the JO7110.65 chapters.
¶ 7-4-1. Visual Approach
¶ 7-4-2. Vectors For Visual pproach
¶ 7-4-3. Clearance for Visual Approach
¶ 7-4-4. Approaches to Multiple Runways
¶ 7-4-6. RNAV Visual Flight Procedures
¶ 13. Departure Procedures
Detail explanation of DPs: https://wiki.xa.ivao.aero/en/atc/departure-procedures
When pilots depart an airport there are generally five kinds of situations in which they may be:
- They have been issued a heading by tower for radar vectors to their route and they have not filed a SID
- They are flying an obstacle departure procedure (ODP)
- They are flying on their own to the first fix in their route
- They are flying a radar vector SID
- They are flying a pilot-nav SID
¶ 13.1 Tower assigns an initial heading
Tower may assign an aircraft a heading within the accepted headings in the appropriate SOP. In any case, you would vector the aircraft and keep it separated from other traffic. Once the aircraft is clear of any conflict, you can tell it to resume own navigation.
Example-
AAL123 is departing and he is unable to fly any SID. TWR assigns him to expect radar vectors after departure.
Once he is handed of to you you can vector him towards his route:
ATC: “AAL123, radar contact, turn left heading 160, climb and maintain FL190.”
ATC: “AAL123, cleared direct BOACH”
¶ 13.2 Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP)
Obstacle departure procedures ar procedures that ensure terrain separation. They end usually at a nearby fix. Departure procedures are specific to runways so there is different phraseology depending on the airport being controlled or not.
PHRASEOLOGY
DEPART VIA THE (airport name) (runway number) DEPARTURE PROCEDURE, (fix)
or
DEPART VIA THE (airport name) DEPARTURE PROCEDURE, (fix)
Example-
ATC: “N123, cleared to Prescott Airport, Depart via the Henderson Runway 35L departure procedure, Boulder City, then as filed. Maintain 7000 expect 11000 10 minutes after departure, departure frequency 135.0, squawk 1111”
This makes your work easier as a controller as you do not have to worry about terrain, just protect the aircraft from other traffic.
Reference: 4-3-2
¶ 13.3 Pilot is on own navigation to his initial fix
In some instances, the controller will provide no course guidance to reach the first fix, either to allow the pilot flexibility to choose his/her own route, or because the controller cannot assign a route due to terrain or other considerations. In this instance the pilot is on his/her own to navigate to the first fix on his route and avoid terrain and obstacles. For airports without an obstacle departure procedure, approved headings, or a diverse vector area, this is almost always the only option.
If you issue a clearance as filed or via a fix, then it is the pilot’s responsibility to maintain terrain separation and get to that fix on his own. Again, this makes it easier for you, however, unlike ODPs, the pilot may fly whichever route to the fix he seems convenient so you must watch out and protect a large part of airspace.
Example
ATC: “N123, cleared to Myrtle Beach via Lakeland VOR, then as filed.”
ATC: “N123, cleared to Kennedy Airport as filed”
¶ 13.4 Radar vector SID
This is similar to the tower assigning an initial vector. The SID in this case will have specific headings to fly and then to expect a radar vector to a certain fix.
ATC: “AAL123, radar contact, turn left heading 330, climb and maintain 13000.”
ATC: “AAL123, cleared direct (fix)”
¶ 13.5 Hybrid SID
These types of SIDs instruct the pilot to fly a particular heading initially for vectors to a route published on the SID chart.
ATC: “AAL123, radar contact, climb and maintain FL190.”
¶ 13.6 Pilot-nav SID
These type of SIDs provide pilots a full guidance to the en-route part of their flight. They require no vectoring from the controller.
DEP: “AAL123, radar contact.”
This will suffice, as the text portion of the departure clears aircraft to FL190 making them comply with the altitude restrictions on the chart.
A common mistake some students will make is saying “climb and maintain FL190, unrestricted climb”. This is redundant as the climb and maintain instruction lifts all altitude restrictions unless they are restated: “Climb via SID” would be correct.
¶ 14. Arrival Procedures
¶ 14.1 STARs
¶ 14.2 Initial Contact
On initial contact all aircraft, at the minimum, should be issued following information:
- local altimeter
- expected approach procedures
EXMAPLE-
Miami altimeter 29.92, expect ILS runway 8R approach.
Subsequent instruction shall contain descend planning and/or radar vectors if required.
EXMAPLE-
Continue descend via the CSTAL1 arrival, runway 8R transition.
or
Descend and maintain 5000, expect radar vectors ILS 8R approach.
or
Descend and maintain 5000, fly heading 210, radar vectors ILS 8R approach.
Aircraft should be kept on the assigned STAR as long as possible for following reasons:
- reduced controller workload
- reduced frequency congestion
- standardized descend
- standardized speed
- standardized altitude
- tailored routing
- STARs are designed to bring in aircraft effectively
¶ 14.2 Transitioning STARs to Approaches
The main task for approach controllers is transition aircraft from a STAR onto an approach.
An ILS instrument procedure (if available) is the preferred way to be used. Pilots can request a different approach otherwise.
There are 2 types of transition methods:
- Seamless (no radar vectors)
- Radar vectors
¶ 14.2.1 Seamless
- Low workload - Most efficient way of managed arrival flows.
- Traffic is primarily sequenced by ATC speed restriction.
Example: CHPPR# (RNAV) arrival for ILS 9R into KATL. Both share the common fix ANDIY with same altitude restriction.
¶ 14.2.2 Radar Vectors
- Medium-to-high workload - Arrivals get intially sequenced by ATC speed restriction but then require vectors.
- Intended to bring aircraft within the approach sector or near the ILS procedure. ATC will issue radar vectors to the final approach course.
Example: CSTAL# (RNAV) Arrival for ILS 8R at Miami Intl (KMIA)
¶ 15. VFR Operations
¶ 15.1 General
VFR aircraft may not operate in Class A airspace (FL180 and above)
¶ 15.1.1 VFR Conditions
a. You may clear aircraft to maintain “VFR conditions” if one of the following conditions exists:
-
The pilot of an aircraft on an IFR flight plan requests a VFR climb/descent.
-
TERMINAL. The clearance will result in noise abatement benefits where part of the IFR departure route does not conform to an approved noise abatement route or altitude.
PHRASEOLOGY-
MAINTAIN VFR CONDITIONS.
MAINTAIN VFR CONDITIONS UNTIL (time or fix).
MAINTAIN VFR CONDITIONS ABOVE/BELOW (altitude).
CLIMB/DESCEND VFR BETWEEN (altitude) AND (altitude)
CLIMB/DESCEND VFRA BOVE/BELOW (altitude).
b. When, in your judgment, there is reason to believe that flight in VFR conditions may become impractical, issue an alternative clearance which will ensure separation from all other aircraft for which you have separation responsibility.
PHRASEOLOGY-
IF UNABLE, (alternative procedure), AND ADVISE.
Reference: 7110.65 7-1-2
¶ 15.1.2 Approach control service for arriving VFR aircraft
Issue the following where procedures have been established for arriving VFR aircraft to contact approach control for landing information:
a. Wind, runway, and altimeter setting at the airport of intended landing. This information may be omitted if contained in the ATIS broadcast and the pilot states the appropriate ATIS code or if the pilot uses the phrase, “have numbers.”
NOTE-
Pilot use of “have numbers” does not indicate receipt of the ATIS broadcast.
b. Traffic information on a workload permitting basis.
c. Time or place at which the aircraft is to contact the tower on local control frequency for further landing information.
d. An aircraft may be instructed to contact approach control for landing and traffic information upon initial contact with the tower.
Reference: 7110.65 7-1-3
¶ 15.1.3 Visual holding of VFR aircraft
TERMINAL
When it becomes necessary to hold VFR aircraft at visual holding fixes, take the following actions:
a. Clear aircraft to hold at selected, prominent geographical fixes which can be easily recognized from the air, preferably those depicted on sectional charts.
NOTE-
At some locations, VFR checkpoints are depicted on Sectional Aeronautical and Terminal Area Charts. In selecting geographical fixes, depicted VFR checkpoints are preferred unless the pilot exhibits a familiarity with the local area.
b. Issue traffic information to aircraft cleared to hold at the same fix.
PHRASEOLOGY-
HOLD AT (location) UNTIL (time or other condition),
TRAFFIC (description) HOLDING AT (fix, altitude if known),
or
PROCEEDING TO (fix) FROM (direction or fix).
Reference: 7110.65 7-1-4
¶ 15.2 Basic Radar Service (Flight Following)
Basic radar services for VFR aircraft must include:
- Safety alerts.
- Traffic advisories.
- Limited radar vectoring when requested by the pilot.
- Sequencing at locations where procedures have been established for this purpose and/or when covered by a SOP.
Reference: 7110.65 7-6-1
¶ 15.2.1 Service availability
a. Inform aircraft on initial contact whenever this service cannot be provided because of radar outage or other reasons.
b. Radar sequencing to the primary airport, when local procedures have been developed, must be provided unless the pilot states that the service is not requested. Arriving aircraft are assumed to want radar service unless the pilot states “Negative radar service,” or makes a similar comment.
Reference: 7110.65 7-6-2
¶ 15.2.2 Approach sequence
a. Identify the aircraft before taking action to position it in the approach sequence.
b. Do not assign landing sequence numbers, when establishing aircraft in the approach sequence, unless this responsibility has been delegated in a LOA or facility directive.
NOTE-
The landing sequence is ordinarily established by the tower.
¶ 15.2.3 Sequencing
Establish radar contact before instructing a VFR aircraft to enter the traffic pattern at a specified point or vectoring the aircraft to a position in the approach sequence. Inform the pilot of the aircraft to follow when the integrity of the approach sequence is dependent on following a preceding aircraft. Ensure visual contact is established with the aircraft to follow and provide instruction to follow that aircraft.
PHRASEOLOGY-
FOLLOW (description) (position, if necessary).
b. Direct a VFR aircraft to a point near the airport to hold when a position is not available in the approach sequence for the runway in use. The aircraft may be vectored to another runway after coordination with the tower.
c. Apply the following procedures to a VFR aircraft being radar sequenced:
- Apply the appropriate radar separation minima .
- When parallel runways are less than 2,500?feet apart, do not permit a heavy jet/B757 to overtake any aircraft nor a large aircraft to overtake a small aircraft established on final within your area of responsibility.
¶ 15.2.4 Control transfer
a. Inform the tower of the aircraft’s position and then instruct the pilot to contact the tower.
b. The aircraft may be instructed to contact the tower prior to the tower being advised of the aircraft’s position provided:
- The tower advises the aircraft is in sight, and
- Space is available in the landing sequence.
c. Instruct the pilot to contact the tower at the appropriate point when the approach control ARTS/STARS track data is being displayed on the tower’s display, the aircraft is tagged by ARTS/STARS, and a SOP specifies change of communications and control jurisdiction points.
NOTE-
The point at which an aircraft is instructed to contact the tower is determined by prior coordination between the tower and approach control and will vary, depending on the runway in use, weather, etc. The transfer of communications ordinarily occurs at least 5 miles from the runway. The point for the transfer of communications should be a sufficient distance from the airport to permit the tower to properly sequence the aircraft, but not at a distance that could derogate the provision of radar traffic information service.
Reference: 7110.65 7-6-5 - 7-6-9
¶ 15.2.5 Termination of service
Basic radar services should be provided to the extent possible, workload permitting. Terminate radar service to aircraft landing at airports other than those where sequencing service is provided at a sufficient distance from the airport to permit the pilot to change to the appropriate frequency for traffic and airport information.
PHRASEOLOGY-
RADAR SERVICE TERMINATED, SQUAWK ONE TWO ZERO ZERO,
or
SQUAWK VFR,
then
CHANGE TO ADVISORY FREQUENCY APPROVED,
or
CONTACT (frequency identification),
or
FREQUENCY CHANGE APPROVED.
EXAMPLE-
“N123, radar service terminated, squawk VFR, frequency changed approved.”
Reference: 7110.65 7-6-11
¶ 15.2.6 Service provided when there is no control tower
a. Provide the following services during hours when the tower is not in operation:
- Wind direction and velocity.
NOTE-
Issue information provided only in Aurora. Otherwise, inform the pilot that wind information is not available.
- Traffic information.
- Inform aircraft when radar service is terminated.
b. Do not assign landing sequence.
Reference: 7110.65 7-6-12
¶ 15.3 Class C
Apply Class C service procedures within the designated Class C airspace and the associated outer area. Class C services are designed to keep ATC informed of all aircraft within Class C airspace, not to exclude operations. Two-way radio communications and operational transponder are required for operations within Class C airspace.
Reference: 7110.65 7-8-1
¶ 15.3.1 Class C services
a. Class C services include the following:
- Sequencing of all aircraft to the primary airport.
- Standard IFR services to IFR aircraft.
- Separation, traffic advisories, and safety alerts between IFR and VFR aircraft.
- Mandatory traffic advisories and safety alerts between VFR aircraft.
b. Provide Class C services to all aircraft operating within Class C airspace.
c. Provide Class C services to all participating aircraft in the outer area.
d. Aircraft should not normally be held. However, if holding is necessary, inform the pilot of the expected length of delay.
e. When a radar outage occurs, advise aircraft that Class C services are not available and, if appropriate, when to contact the tower.
Reference: 7110.65 7-8-2
¶ 15.3.2 Separation
Separate VFR aircraft from IFR aircraft by any one of the following:
a. Visual separation.
NOTE-
Issue wake turbulence cautionary advisories.
b. 500 feet vertical separation;
c. Target resolution.
NOTE-
Apply the appropriate wake turbulence separation minima when required
Reference: 7110.65 7-8-3
¶ 15.3.3 Establishing two-way radio communications
Class C service requires pilots to establish two-way radio communications before entering Class C airspace. If the controller responds to a radio call with, “(a/c call sign) standby,” radio communications have been established and the pilot can enter Class C airspace. If workload or traffic conditions prevent immediate provision of Class C services, inform the pilot to remain outside Class C airspace until conditions permit the services to be provided.
PHRASEOLOGY-
(A/c call sign) REMAIN OUTSIDE CHARLIE AIRSPACE AND STANDBY.
Reference: 7110.65 7-8-4
¶ 15.3.4 Altitude assignments
a. When necessary to assign altitudes to VFR aircraft, assign altitudes that meet the MVA, MSA, or minimum IFR altitude criteria.
b. When necessary to assign an altitude for separation purposes to VFR aircraft contrary to appropriate altitudes for direction of flight, advise the aircraft to resume altitudes appropriate for the direction of flight when the altitude assignment is no longer needed for separation, when leaving the outer area, or when terminating Class C service.
PHRASEOLOGY-
RESUME APPROPRIATE VFR ALTITUDES.
Reference: FAAO 7110.65 7-8-5
¶ 15.3.5 Exceptions
a. VFR helicopters need not be separated from IFR helicopters. Traffic information and safety alerts must be issued as appropriate.
b. Hot air balloons need not be separated from IFR aircraft. Traffic information and safety alerts must be issued as appropriate.
Reference: 7110.65 7-8-6
¶ 15.3.6 Termination of service
Unless aircraft are landing at secondary airports or have requested termination of service while in the outer area, provide services until the aircraft departs the associated outer area. Terminate Class C service to aircraft landing at other than the primary airport at a sufficient distance from the airport to allow the pilot to change to the appropriate frequency for traffic and airport information.
PHRASEOLOGY-
CHANGE TO ADVISORY FREQUENCY APPROVED,
or
CONTACT (facility identification).
Reference: 7110.65 7-8-8
¶ 15.4 Class B
Apply Class B services and procedures within the designated Class B airspace.
a. No person may operate an aircraft within Class B airspace unless:
- The aircraft has an operable two-way radio capable of communications with ATC on appropriate frequencies for that Class B airspace.
- The aircraft is equipped with the applicable operating transponder and automatic altitude reporting.
¶ 15.4.1 VFR aircraft in Class B airspace
- VFR aircraft must obtain an ATC clearance to operate in Class B airspace.
- Approve/deny requests from VFR aircraft to operate in Class B airspace based on workload, operational limitations and traffic conditions.
- Inform the pilot when to expect further clearance when VFR aircraft are held either inside or outside Class B airspace.
Approval:
PHRASEOLOGY-
CLEARED THROUGH/TO ENTER/OUT OF BRAVO AIRSPACE,and as appropriate,
VIA (route). MAINTAIN (altitude) WHILE IN BRAVO AIRSPACE.
or
CLEARED AS REQUESTED.
(Additional instructions, as necessary.)
Denial:
PHRASEOLOGY-
REMAIN OUTSIDE BRAVO AIRSPACE. (When necessary, reason and/or additional instructions.)
Inform VFR aircraft when leaving Class B airspace.
PHRASEOLOGY-
LEAVING (name) BRAVO AIRSPACE,and as appropriate,
RESUME OWN NAVIGATION, REMAIN THIS FREQUENCY FOR TRAFFIC ADVISORIES, RADAR SERVICE TERMINATED, SQUAWK ONE TWO ZERO ZERO.
Reference: 7110.65 7-9-2
¶ 15.4.2 Methods
a. To the extent practical, clear large turbine engine-powered airplanes to/from the primary airport using altitudes and routes that avoid VFR corridors and airspace below the Class B airspace floor where VFR aircraft are operating.
b. Vector aircraft to remain in Class B airspace after entry. Inform the aircraft when leaving and reentering Class B airspace if it becomes necessary to extend the flight path outside Class B airspace for spacing.
NOTE-
14 CFR Section 91.131 states that “Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each person operating a large turbine engine-powered airplane to or from a primary airport for which a Class B airspace area is designated must operate at or above the designated floors of the Class B airspace area while within the lateral limits of that area.” Such authorization should be the exception rather than the rule.
c. Aircraft departing controlled airports within Class B airspace will be provided the same services as those aircraft departing the primary airport.
Reference: 7110.65 7-9-3
¶ 15.4.3 Separation
a. Standard IFR services to IFR aircraft.
b. VFR aircraft must be separated from VFR/IFR aircraft that weigh more than 19,000 pounds and turbojets by no less than:
- 1.5 NM separation, or
- 500 feet vertical separation, or
- Visual separation, as specified in 7-2-1 Visual Separation, 7-4-2 Vectors for Visual Approach, and 7-6-7 Sequencing.
c. VFR aircraft must be separated from all VFR/IFR aircraft which less than 19,000 pounds by a minimum of:
- Target resolution, or
- 500 feet vertical separation, or
- Apply the appropriate wake turbulence separation minima, or
- Visual Separation
Reference: 7110.65 7-9-4
¶ 15.4.4 Traffic advisories
a. Provide mandatory traffic advisories and safety alerts, between all aircraft.
b. Apply merging target procedures.
Reference: 7110.65 7-9-5
¶ 15.4.5 Helicopter traffic
VFR helicopters need not be separated from VFR or IFR helicopters. Traffic advisories and safety alerts must be issued as appropriate.
Reference: 7110.65 7-9-6
¶ 15.3.1 Altitude assignments
a. Altitude information contained in a clearance, instruction, or advisory to VFR aircraft must meet MVA, MSA, or minimum IFR altitude criteria.
b. Appropriate altitudes for direction of flight, advise the aircraft to resume altitudes appropriate for the direction of flight when the altitude assignment is no longer required or when leaving Class B airspace.
PHRASEOLOGY-
RESUME APPROPRIATE VFR ALTITUDES.
Reference: 7110.65 7-9-7
¶ 16. Simultaneous Approaches
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has conducted simultaneous independent approaches to parallel runways for over 40 years. These approaches use Instrument Landing System (ILS) navigation and terminal radar monitoring. There are two types of simultaneous parallel approaches:
Mode 1
Independent parallel approaches, where radar separation minima are not prescribed between aircraft using adjacent ILS
Mode 2
Dependent parallel approaches, where radar separation minima between aircraft using adjacent ILS are prescribed
¶ 16.1 Simultaneous Dependent Approaches
https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/atc_html/chap5_section_9.html#DOK33eJACK
¶ 16.2 Simultaneous Independent Approaches (Dual/Tripple)
https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/atc_html/chap5_section_9.html#L2K37aJACK
¶ 16.3 Simultaneous Independent Close Parallel Approaches (PRM)
Precision Runway Monitor (PRM) is simulated as long as APP or CTR is managing the approach sequence.
PRM Approaches are currently conducted only at:
More details:
Reference:
https://www.faa.gov/training_testing/training/prm
https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/atc_html/chap5_section_9.html#$paragraph5-9-8
¶ 16.4 Simultaneous Offset Instrument Approaches (SOIA)
- SOIA allows for offset instrument approaches on runways as close as 750 feet apart, maintaining separation during low visibility conditions.
- SOIA requires that both runways have approved PRM approaches, with visual minimums slightly higher due to misalignment offsets.
- While SOIA procedures are no longer used at SFO, they remain available for airports with exceptionally close runways in need of simultaneous landings.
More details:
https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/atc_html/chap5_section_9.html#$paragraph5-9-9
¶ 17. Go-arounds and Missed Approches
When aircraft are conducting simultaneous dependent, independent, or any approaches allowing for reduced separation, and one of the aircraft executes a go-around or has its approach clearance terminated and prior to losing the approved reduced separation, control instructions must be expeditiously issued to increase separation between the applicable aircraft.
These control instructions must establish approved separation (for example, altitude and/or lateral separation via divergence). In addition, wake turbulence cautionary advisories must be issued in accordance with paragraph 2-1-20, Wake Turbulence Cautionary Advisories.
Reference: 7110.65 5-9-11